The Fisheries for and the Mariculture Potential of Groupers, Red Red Snappers, Breams, and other Coral Reef Fishes in India

M. Devaraj and V. Sriramachandra Murty[1]

Abstract

India is endowed with vast areas of coastal reefs along the Gulf of Kutch, Kerala coast, Wadge Bank, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and the Andaman and Lakshadweep islands. The coral reefs constitute an important habitat for a vast range of ornamental fishes of about 300 species. Of these, fishes of the families Acanthuridae, Pomacentridae, Labridae, Scaridae, Chaetodontidae, Siganidae, Holocentridae, Syngnathidae and Balistidae are important. About 40 species of groupers, a similar number of red snappers, and about 9 species of pigface breams are known from India. The grouper fishery comprises Epinephelus tauvina, E. malabaricus, E. undulosus, E. areolatus, E. merra, E. fasciatus, E. sonneratti, E. bleekeri, E. diacanthus, E. chlorostigma, E. caeruleopunctatus, and Promicrops lanceolatus are common in the fishery. Among the red snappers, Lutjanus rivulatus, L. malabaricus, L. fulviflamma, L. kasmira, L. argentimaculatus, L. vaigiensis, L. lineolatus, L. gibbus, and Pristipomoides typus constitute the fishery. The fishery for the pigface breams includes Lethrinus nebulous, L. lenten, L. miniatus, L. elongatus and L. mahsenoides. During the 1985 to 1994 period, an estimated average annual landing of 13,616 t was obtained in India with grouper forming 44.9 %, pigface breams 31.1% and snappers 24.0%. Almost the entire catch was taken from the 0-50 m depth. The potential of these fisheries in the Indian EEZ is estimated to be around 40,000 t in the 0-50 m depth zone and 14,600 t in the 50-300 m depth zone. The wide difference between the potential and the landings is due to the grounds not being amenable to trawls and set-nets. Fishing by traps and long-lines need to be popularised for the effective exploitation of these resources. In the area of marine finfish culture, the country is still in the experimental phase. Experiments on several species Epinephelus tauvina, Siganus canaliculatus, S. javus, Lates calcarifer, and other species were conducted. Breeding, seed production, and grow-out technologies are yet to be developed. Very recently, lucrative nursery grounds of grouper seed (of 60-260 mm) have been located off the southeast coast of India and live juveniles of groupers (E. tauvina and E. malabaricus) are exported live to Hong Kong and Singapore. The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute has embarked on a programme of breeding and hatchery production of seed of groupers, snappers and breams. A private company is currently operating a net cage at Tuticorin in the Gulf of Mannar for captive holding and fattening of groupers for live export in ship to Hong Kong. The company has exported in 1996 about 20 tonnes of live groupers.

Introduction

India is endowed with vast areas of coastal reefs along the Gulf of Kutch, Kerala coast, Wadge Bank, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and the Andaman and Lakshadweep islands. They are distributed in the nearshore regions in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar and the lagoons of Lakshadweep islands, in the depths of over 400-m along the west coast and around the islands in the Andaman and Lakshadweep. Most of these areas are not suitable for fishing with trawlers gillnets. However, trap and long-lines are operated efficiently in these areas. The present fishery, however, is restricted to trawls and hooks and lines in the inshore waters and perch-traps in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay.

The fishes of the families Serranidae (groupers), Lutjanidae (snappers), and Lethrinidae (pigface breams or emperors), together referred to as perches in this paper, are represented by about 90 species in the Indian seas. There is considerable potential for the exploitation of these fish populations. The estimated potential of these resources in the Indian EEZ is around 55,000 t. In addition to the perches, there are around 300 species of marine fishes, which can be classified as ornamental fishes, distributed in the vast stretches of coral reefs in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) which are not presently exploited. The commerce for live perches and marine ornamental fishes has bright prospects based on recent developments in export market for finfishes. It is therefore important to accelerate the production of groupers, breams, snappers, and marine ornamental fishes and to develop their hatchery and grow-out technologies to promote the trade of live fishes. A review of the present status of our knowledge on these fishes is presented here to facilitate further action.

Overview of Marine Fish Aquaculture

Species Cultured

The marine fish aquaculture in India is still at the experimental stage. Many species are presently cultured, namely Chanos chanos, Mugil cephalus, Liza macrolepis, Valamugil seheli, Anguilla bicolor bicolor, Etroplus suratensis, Oreochromis mossambicus, Sillago sihama, Siganus javus, S. canaliculatus, L. calcarifer, E. tauvina, and a few others. The culture of the groupers, siganids, and L. calcarifer will be considered in this review.

Production

The production from culture experiments mainly Chanos chanos and mullets are variable (Table 1). The possible reasons for this variability are the differences in the stocking rates and methods of culture in different localities. For coral reef fishes, only the grouper, Epinephelus tauvina has been cultured experimentally using net-cages in Mandapam. The seedlings were 16.3 mm in length and 47.5 g in weight and stocked at 100 inds/ha. The production at the end of 11 months is 288 kg.

Culture systems and their geographic locations

The cage culture and the pen culture systems are present in India. The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFI) has developed facilities for experimental culture of marine finfishes. The cage culture system was developed for groupers, rabbitfishes, and seabass. For all the other species, the pen culture system was developed. The inshore regions along the coast are suitable for finfish culture using floating net cages, pen-, and cage culture practices. Along the northeast coast, Chilka Lake, and the Kakinada Bay are suitable.

On the southern coasts of southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu, the Pulicat Lake has areas suitable for culture. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, the Vizhinjam Bay, the estuarine backwater lakes of Kerala, the estuaries of Karnataka and the Gulf of Kutch along the northwest coast, and the shallower lagoons in the Andaman and Laksadweep islands are suitable for pen- and cage culture practices.

The suitability of net-cage culture in the Gulf of Mannar has been demonstrated. A private entrepreneur at Tuticorin near the Vantive Island in the Gulf of Mannar has developed recently a commercial net-cage culture system (only holding). This firm gathers groupers from different fishing grounds with the help of trained fishermen in the Gulf of Mannar region. Floating net cages in a raft anchored at 4-m depth close to this island are used for holding the live groupers weighing from 0.5 to 15 kg. Sardines and fresh trash fish are given as food. Efforts are in progress for a similar venture from the Andaman waters.

Table 1. Production in experimental culture of marine finfishes in different culture systems

Species	Stocking density (no/ha)	Production (kg/ha) Region	Reference
Monoculture
Chanos chanos	6250	212	Thampi, 1960
	4000	852/Mandapam	Mohnaraj et al., 1983
	5600[2]	2,765-4,663/ Calicut	Lazarus and Nandakumaran, 1987
	2000	546-770/ Madras	Nammalwar and Mohanrajm, 1991
	7820	318-857/	Bensam and Marichamy, 1981
	75490	NA[3]/Tuticorin	Evangeline, 1967
Polyculture
Chanos chanos Penaeus monodon	3,500 70,000	704-1,088/ Madras	Syndararajan et al. (1979)
Chanos chanos Liza macrolepis Scylla serrata	1,450 300 617	1,644/ Tuticorin	Marichamy et al. (1980)
Chanos chanos Mugil cephalus Penaeus indicus	3,500-4,982 2,428-7,364 43,200-76,383	498-662	Marichamy and Rajapackiam, 1982a, b
Chanos chanos P. monodon	5,000	140-364/ Madras	Nammalwar and Kathirvel, 1988
Chanos chanos M. cephalus	1,000	254/ Madras	Nammalwar and Mohanraj, 1991
Chanos chanos Liza macrolepis Valamugil seheli P. monodon	13,000 2,000 22,000 7,000	1,464/ Madapam	James et al., 1984a, b
Pen culture
Chanos chanos	4,000	NA/Mandapam	Venkataraman et al. 1985
L. macrolepis	10,000	NA/Tuticorin	Sunmugam and Bensam, 1982
Chanos chanos	40,000	NA/Tuticorin	Marichamy et al., 1982
Monoculture of Grey mullets
Liza vagiensis	22,000	135	James et al., 1985a
Valamugil seheli	50,000	387/Mandapam
M. cephalus	15,000	123	Nammalwar and Monhanraj, 1991
L. macrolepis	7,000	387	Nammalwar and Monhanraj, 1991
Polyculture
M. cephalus L. macrolepis Liza cunnesius	2,400 5,000	199-752 NA/Madras	Nammalwar and Monhanraj, 1991
Pen culture (polyculture)
L. macrolepis P. indicus P. monodon	50,000	192/ Tuticorin	Marichamy et al., 1979
M. cephalus L. macrolepis	40,000 40,000	555.9/ Tuticorin	Marichamy et al., 1980
Pearl-spot monoculture in ponds
Etroplus suratensis	5,000	1,000-2,000/ Kerala and Goa	Sumitra Vijayaraghavan et al., 1981
Asian seabass pond culture
L. calcarifer	104-176	Nil/Tuticorin	James and Marichamy, 1987
	2,000-5,000	2,000/West Bengal	Pillai and Bose, 1957
	6,000	2,759/West Bengal
Polyculture
L. calcarifer Oreochromis mossambicus	444 4,444	217.78 213.33/Kerala	Purushan, 1990
L. calcarifer O. mossambicus	1,000 4,200	506.89 886/Kerala
L. calcarifer O. mossambicus	600 4,900	322.44 904.44
Cage culture
Epinephelus tauvina	13 (173-354mm/80-580 g)	19 mm/87.3 g	James et al., 1985
E. tauvina	100 (16.3/47.5 g)	228kg/11 mo/ Mandpam	Ameer Hamsa and Mohamed Kasim, 1992
E. hexagonatus	8 (224-300mm/190-380 g)	6mm/30 g
Sillago sihama	106 (63-95/2.8-6 gm)	20.1mm/3.2g	James et al., 1985
Siganus canaliculatus	100 (71-91mm-4.0-10g)	12.4 mm/2.8 g	James et al., 1985
S. javus	200 (67-90mm/5.2-13 g)	16.0mm/6.2 g Mandapam	James et al., 1985

Trade and Economics

The live fish trade is mainly for groupers although there is a great potential to export ornamental aquarium marine fishes from the coral reefs of India. Live groupers are exported by a commercial venture at a minimum of 10 tonnes to Hong Kong for further trading through a chartered modern vessel (live-fish trading vessel). About 2 tonnes of live groupers, ranging from 2 to 18 kg, comprising 3 species of groupers Epinephelus tauvina, E. malabaricus, and E. undulosus, were exported live to Hong Kong during 1996. Live groupers are exported at the rate of Rs 150 to 200 per kg, which is about three times higher than the price in the local markets. Ornamental aquarium fishes is exported at a very low quantity; almost the entire trade of ornamental fishes, valued at about Rs 100 million (Srivastava, 1994), is based on freshwater fishes. There is vast scope for commercial export of marine ornamental fish in view of the abundant resources in the Indian reefs.

The resource: coral reefs and associated fisheries

Reef distribution and associated fish species

India is endowed with vast areas of coral reefs along the Gulf of Kutch, Kerala coast, Wadge Bank, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and the Andaman and Lakshadweep Islands. They are distributed in the nearshore regions in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar and the lagoons of Lakshadweep Islands. Coral reefs are also found down to 40 m deep and around the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands. These coral reefs are rich in groupers, snappers, emperors that are exploited for the food market and about 300 species for the aquarium trade.

The coral reef fishes are exploited for the aquarium trade from 3 general localities: Lakashadweep Islands, Andaman Islands, and the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. There are 36 islands in the Lakshadweep region that harbours a variety of aquarium fishes (Table 2). The labrids (45 species), damselfishes (35 species), cardinal fishes (22), groupers (21 species), blennies (20 species), surgeon fishes (19 species), butterfly fishes (16 species), goat fishes (14 species), gobies (14 spp.), scorpion fishes (14 spp.), trigger fish (10 spp.), squirrel fish (9 spp.), and many others.

The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute is currently engaged in a survey of the coral reef fishes that are exploited for the aquarium industry. Eight islands have been surveyed so far. The preliminary results of this study are:

· 199 species (of the 300 spp.) are common in these islands;

· wrasses are the most dominant, numerically contributing to 37% of the total population, followed by the damselfishes (31.9%), parrotfishes (8.4%);

· groupers comprise 1.2% of the numerical abundance;

· Kalpeni Island has the highest number of species with 28.8% of the total population, followed by Amini (27.6%), Kadamat (15.4%), Chetlat (9.2%); and

· 72 of the common species in these islands (Table 2) are dominant numerically and are exploitable.

Reef Fisheries

The groupers, snappers, and emperors in the coral reefs are exploited in the inshore regions by trawls, hooks-and-lines, and perch-traps. There is no target fishing or these fishes except the hook-and-line fisheries along the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts and perch-trap fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay.

The yields of the coral reef fishery are high. During the period from 1984-1994, the annual landings of groupers ranged from 2,611 tonnes in 1986 to 10,895 tonnes in 1993 and with annual average of 6,114 tonnes. For snappers, the landings ranged from 2,228 tonnes in 1991, and 4,135 tonnes in 1988, and 3,262 tonnes on the average. For emperors, the landings during this period ranged from 1,943 tonnes in 1989 to 9,705 tonnes in 1994 with an average of 4,240 tonnes (Figure 1).

Catches of these 3 coral reef fishes are primarily from Tamil Nadu. The maximum catch of groupers, representing 33.5% of India’s total production, was obtained from the Tamil Nadu coast and in Maharashtra (27.8%), Kerala (21.2%), Gujarat (9.7%), and other States. Snappers are less abundant along the Tamil Nadu coast (26% of total), than along the coasts of Andhra Pradesh (24.0%), Mahrashtra (20.3%), Kerala (15.6%), Gujarat (11.4%), and other States. The emperors are harvested primarily from the Tamil Nadu coast with accounts for 87.5% of the India’s landings (Figure 1).

The fishery for these coral reef fishes is organised in Tamil Nadu, particularly in the Gulf of Mannar and the Wadge Bank using hook-and-lines, gill-nets, and perch-traps. In the Gulf of Mannar, off Tuticorin, there are 250 to 300 country crafts with lines and gill nets that operate in 35 to 60 m. About 85% of perches are caught by hooks-and-lines. Serranids, which compose about 25% of perch catches, are represented by 5 species, namely, Epinephelus tauvina (53%), E. malabaricus (15.7%), E. diacanthus (14.1 %), E. chlorostigma (11.1%), and E. undulosus (6.1%). Large catches are taken during July-October (Matthew, 1995). Lutjanids form about 15% of perch catches. Lutjanus rivulatus is the most dominant snapper (45%) and then followed by L. argentimaculatus (26.6%), L. malabaricus (21.2%), and Pristipomoides typus (9.6%). Sustenance fishery also occurs in Keelkarai Village in the Gulf of Mannar.

The other location where there is a regular and organised fishery is off Quill. The lutjanids form 80% of the catches while serranids compose 20% of the catches during January-April every year. The fishery uses hook and line at 50-150 m depth (Madnmohan, 1983).

Status of Exploitation of Coral Reef Associated Fishes

Perches

The groupers (Serranidae), snappers (Lutjanidae) and pigface breams (Lethrinidae) are among the most dominant residents fish populations in the regions. They are exploited in the inshore by trawls, hooks and lines, and perch traps. There is however no target-fishing for these fishes excepting the hook and line fisheries along the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts and perch trap fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay.

The data on all-India production during 1985-94 showed that the annual landings of perches were increasing (Figure 1). Landings of groupers was highest among the perches, ranging from 2,611 t in 1986 to 10,895 t in 1993 with an annual average of 6,114 t. For snappers, the minimum, maximum and average during the period were 2,228 t in 1991 and 4,136 t in 1988 and 3,262 t, respectively. With respect the pigface breams, the annual landings varied from 1,943 t in 1989 to 9,705 t in 1994 with an average of 4,240 t (Figure 1).

These perches are caught in different states throughout India. The maximum catches for groupers, representing 33.5% of country's total, was obtained from the Tamil Nadu coast followed by Maharashtra (27.8%), Kerala (21.2%), Gujarat (9.7%), and other States. Snappers are also more abundant along the Tamil Nadu coast (26% of India's catch of snappers) than along the coasts of Andhra Pradesh (24.0%), Maharashtra (20.3%), Kerala (15.6%), Gujarat (11.4%) and other States. The pigface breams are taken principally from the Tamil Nadu coast that accounts for 87.5% of India's landings (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Trends in the catches of selected coral reef fishes from 1985 to 1994

A large number of exploratory and experimental fishing surveys undertaken along the Indian coasts highlight the relative and absolute abundance of various demersal fisheries, both in spatial and temporal terms (Bapat et al., 1982; Joseph et al., 1987; Menon and Joseph, 1969; Ninan et al., 1984; Philip et al., 1984; Silas, 1969; Sivaprakasam, 1986; Somavanshi and Bhar, 1984). The status of present knowledge on the distribution and abundance of demersal fishes in the Indian EEZ based on these surveys is reviewed (James et al., 1993). The perches are exploited with trawl nets, hooks and lines, and traps. There is however no targeted fishing for these resources except the hook-and-line fisheries along the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts. In Tamil Nadu, there is an organised fishery for the perches in the Gulf of Mannar and the Wadge Bank using hooks and lines, gillnets, and perch traps. In the Gulf of Mannar off Tuticorin (8^o N lat.), the bottom is rocky and rich in coral reefs. In this region, about 250 to 300 traditional crafts operate with hooks and lines and gillnets in 35 to 60 m depths to catch perches. About 85% of perch the catch is obtained by hooks and lines. Serranids which form about 25% of perch catch are represented by five species of which E. tauvina is the most dominant (53%), followed by E. malabaricus (15.7%), E. diacanthus (14.1%), E. chlorostigma (11.1%), and E. undulosus (6.1%). Maximum catches are taken during July-October (Mathew, 1995). Lutjanids form about 15% of perch catch and L. rivulatus is the most dominant species forming 43% of snappers landed, followed by L. argentimaculatus (26.6%), L. malabaricus (21.2%), and Pristipomoides typus (9.6%). In the Gulf of Mannar off the Keelakarai fishing village there is a sustenance fishery by traps, which exploit groupers and snappers along with several other coral fishes. Along the west coast, off Cochin, the hook-and-line fishery starts around December and lasts till March (Mathew and Venugopalan, 1990). Mechanised boats (7.62 to 9.4 m) conduct fishing during December and January and landings of mostly perches. Perches form over 90% of the catch, which is dominated by E. diacanthus (19-59 cm), E. chlorostigma (24-62 cm), E. tauvina (42-85 cm), E. bleekeri (21-64 cm), E. areolatus, and Pristipomoides typus (19-69 cm). There is a regular fishery for serranids (20%), and lutjanids (80%) in January-April every year by traditional craft using hooks-and-lines off Quilon (8^o20'40"N lat., 77^o2'5"E long.) in the 50 to 150-m depth range (Madanmohan, 1983).

Ornamental Fishes

In the lagoons of the Lakshadweep islands and the Andaman Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, and Palk Bay, a large number of ornamental fishes occur among the corals and seagrasses (Table 2). However, there is very little information on the availability, abundance, and stock of ornamental fishes. There is one reports from on Lakshadweep (Murty et al., 1989) and another from the Andamans (Dorairaj, 1994). At present, there is no organised exploitation of these fishes.

Table 2. Important and common commercial species ^[4] in the Lakshadsweep Islands, Wandoor National Park, and in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (4 - present)

Scientific names	Lakshadsweep	Wandoor National Park	Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay
Acanthuridae – surgeon fishes
1. Acanthurus elongatus (?)	4
2. A. gahhm			4
3. A. lineatus	4	4
4. A. leucosternon	4	4
5. A. nigricauda	4
6. A. nigrofuscus	4		4
7. A. triostegus	4	4
8. Ctenochaetus strigosus	4	4	4
9. Naso brevirostris	4		4
10. N. lituratus	4
11. N. tuberosus	4
12. N. unicornis	4	4
13. Zebrasoma veliferum	4	4	4
Balistidae – triggerfishes
14. Balistapus undulatus	4	4
15. B. viridis (?)		4
16. Balistoides viridescens	4
17. Odonus niger			4
18. Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus
19. Rhinecanthus aculeatus	4
20. R. rectangulus	4
Chaetodontidae – butterflyfishes
21. Chaetodon annularis		4
22. C. aura	4	4	4
23. C. citrenellus	4
24. C. collare			4
25. C. falcula	4	4
26. C. lineolatus		4
27. C. lunula	4
28. C. melannotus			4
29. C. octofasciatus			4
30. C. plebeius			4
31. C. trifasciatus	4	4	4
32. C. vagabundus		4
33. C. xanthocephalus			4
34. Heniochus acuminatus	4	4	4
35. Megaprotodon striangulus (?)	4
Ephippidae – batfishes
36. Platax orbicularis		4	4
37. P. teira			4
Holocentridae – squirrelfishes
38. Myripristis adusta	4
39. M. murdjan	4
40. Sargocentron caudimaculatum	4
41. S. diadema	4		4
42. S. punctatissimum	4
43. S. rubrum		4	4
44. S. spinifer	4
45. S. violaceum	4
Labridae – wrasses
46. Anampses caeruleopunctatus		4
47. Cheilinus chlorourus			4
48. C. trilobatus	4		4
49. C. undulatus			4
50. Cheilio inermis			4
51. Epibulus insidiator			4
52. Gomphosus caeruleus	4	4
53. G. varius	4	4
54. Halichoeres centiquadrus	4
55. H. leucurus			4
56. H. marginatus	4
57. H. nigriscens (?)			4
58. H. scapularis	4
59. Stethojulis albovittata	4
60. S. balteata			4
61. S. interrupta			4
62. S. phaekadopleura (?)			4
63. S. strigiventer	4
64. S. trilineata	4
65. Thalassoma hardwicke	4	4	4
Monacanthidae - filefishes
66. Aluterus scriptus			4
67. Paramonacanthus choirocephalis			4
68. Mulloidichthys flavolineatus	4		4
69. Parupeneus barberinus	4
70. P. bifasciatus	4
71. P. Forskåli	4
72. P. indicus			4
73. P. macronema	4
74. P. pleurospilus (?)			4
75. Upeneus displurus (?)			4
Mullidae – goatfishes
76. U. japonicus			4
77. U. luzonius			4
78. U. oligospilus (?)			4
79. U. sulphureus			4
80. U. sundaicus			4
81. U. tragula			4
82. U. vittatus			4
Ostraciidae – boxfishes
83. Lactoria cornuta			4
84. Ostracion nasus			4
Pomacanthidae – angelfishes
85. Centropyge multispinis	4
86. Pomacanthus annularis (?)			4
87. P. imperator	4	4
88. Abudefduf biocellatus (?)			4
89. A. saxatilis		4	4
90. A. sexfasciatus	4
91. A. semptemfasciatus			4
92. A. xanthozona (?)	4
93. Amphiprion percula		4
94. A. sebae			4
95. Chromis caerulea	4	4
96. C. chrysura	4
97. C. dimidiata		4
98. Chrysiptera glauca	4
99. Dascyllus aruanus	4	4
100. D. reticulatus	4
101. Plectroglyphidodon dickii	4
102. P. lacrymatus	4
103. Pomacentrus albicaudatus	4
104. P. brachialis	4
105. P. trilineata	4
106. Stegastes nigricans	4
Scaridae – parrotfishes
107. Callyodon bataviensis (?)	4
108. C. dussumieri (?)			4
109. C. scaber (?)	4
110. C. taeniurus (?)	4
111. Calotomus spinidens	4
112. Chlororus sordidus	4	4
113. Leptoscarus vaigiensis	4		4
114. Scarus ghobban			4
Scorpaenidae – scorpion fishes
115. Pterois volitans		4	4
116. P. miles			4
Serranidae – groupers
117. Cephalopholis argus	4	4
118. C. boenak			4
119. C. leopardus		4
120. C. miniata		4	4
121. Epinephelus merra	4	4	4
122. E. hexagonatus	4
123. E. undulosus			4
Siganidae – rabbitfishes
124. Siganus canaliculatus			4
125. S. javus			4
126. S. spinus		4
127. S. stellatus		4
128. S. virgatus		4
Syngnathidae – seahorses, pipefishes
129. Hippocampus kuda		4
130. Migrognathus brevirostris			4
131. Microphis brachyurus		4
132. Syngnathoides biaculeatus			4
Tetraodontidae – pufferfishes
133. Arothron immaculatus
134. A. hispidus
135. A. reticularis
136. Canthigaster margaritata	4		4
Tetrarogidae – cobbler
137. Gymnapistes dracaena (?)			4
Zanclidae – moorish idol
138. Zanclus cornutus	4		4
Total	81	37	65

Distribution

Lakshadweep Islands - There are 36 islands in this region and the lagoons and reef flats harbour rich ornamental fish fauna. Of over 600 species of marine fishes reported from this region, about 300 species belonging to about 35 families are known for their attractive colours and shapes. Among them, the wrasses (Labridae), constitute the largest group with 45 species followed by damselfishes (35 species), cardinal fishes (22 species), groupers (21 species), blennies (20 species), surgeon- or unicorn fishes (19 species), butterfly fishes (16 species), goatfishes (14 species), gobies (14 species), scorpion fishes (14 species), triggerfish (10 species), squirrel fishes (9 species), and others.

The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute is currently engaged in the survey of ornamental fish resources of the Lakshadweep. The tentative results of this study are outlined below:

· Of the total of over 300 species known, the surgeon fishes, parrot fishes, puffer fishes, butterfly fishes, squirrel fishes, wrasses, trigger fishes, file fishes, goat fishes, angel fishes, damsel fishes, groupers, and moorish idols, comprising 199 species are common in these islands;

· Of the 199 species, 72 species (Table 2) are dominant numerically and offer considerable scope for exploitation and export;

· Among them the wrasses are the most dominant numerically constituting 37% of the total population, followed by the damselfishes (31.9%);

· parrotfishes (8.4%), goat fishes (8.2%), squirrel fishes (4.7%), surgeon fishes (4.6%), butterfly fishes (2.1%), groupers (1.2%), trigger fishes (0.8%), puffer fishes (0.6%), moorish idols (0.4%), and angel fishes (0.1%); and

· Of the eight islands surveyed so far, Kalpeni is the richest in the above groups of fishes with 28.8% of the total population followed by Amini (27.6%), Kadamat (15.4%), Chetlat (9.2%), Kavaratti (7.4%), Agatti (6.3%), Kiltan (3.2%), and Bitra (2.2%).

Andaman Group of islands - These islands offer a variety of habitats such as rocky coasts with tidal pools, extensive backwaters, bays and mudflats that provide potential areas for the exploitation of rich and varied marine fishes. About 150 species of ornamental fishes are known to be available in these islands. They include the squirrelfishes, scorpionfishes, groupers, butterflyfishes, batfishes, angelfishes, damselfishes, wrasses, blennies, surgeonfishes, rabbitfishes, triggerfishes, boxfishes, puffers, and other species. In the marine national park, Wandoor, Andamans, a survey conducted recently showed that the angelfishes were the most abundant forming 32% of the total population followed by snappers and fusiliers (19%), surgeonfishes (18%), coral fishes (12%), spinefoot (4%), wrasses (3%), and others (2%). Majority of these species is of ornamental value (Table 2).

Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay - This region has several islands with extensive fringing coral reefs. About 70 species of ornamental fishes belonging to about 19 families (Table 2) are known from this region. Butterflyfishes, wrasses, damselfishes, rabbitfishes, and scorpionfishes are dominant.

Fishery for ornamental fishes

In India, marine ornamental fishes are least exploited at present but a variety of gears can be used for its exploitation. Gears like lift-nets, seines, scoop-nets, and traps can be used for the exploitation of ornamental fishes. A trap, measuring 4'x2'x2', is an effective and ideal gear for 4'x2'x2', is an effective and ideal gear for the collection of ornamental fishes. These traps are immersed with baits of live mussels and retrieved the next morning. Each trap yields an average of 20-25 fishes per day. Ten such cages operating as one unit can yield 200 to 250 fishes a day without causing any damage to the coral reef ecosystem.

Aquaculture Systems and Management

At present, marine finfish culture is not practised even on a small scale in India. Studies in induced breeding and seed production of various species of grey mullets such as Mugil cephalus, Liza parsia, and Liza macrolepis were pioneered by Chaudhuri et al. (1977), Sebastian and Nair (1975), Alikunhi et al. (1971), and Kowtal and Gupta (1983). Dorairaj et al. (1980) obtained only limited success in induced breeding of the marine eel Anguilla bicolor. However, dietary items for rearing larvae of marine fishes are already available. The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute has achieved a breakthrough in the large-scale production of live feed organisms such as different species of microalgae, rotifer, Artemia, Moina, and Daphnia which constitute the major dietary items for rearing the larvae.

Aquaculture at present involves mainly the grow-out of milkfish and groupers. Grow-out experiments carried out so far show that the milkfish can be stocked at a density of 5,000/ha. The stocking density of grouper is around 5,000 to 7,000/ha at present. Small individuals of Tilapia are released in the same pond to serve as forage fish for the groupers. However, the production potential of various cultivable marine finfish, such as the mullets is high, ranging from 76 kg/ha to 540 kg/ha (unpub. data).

Constraints of Culture

There many constraints in the culture of marine finfishes. The availability and procurement of broodstock from the wild is still a serious constraint. Hatchery development to support of marine finfish farming has not yet taken place. Financial support from government agencies is absent or minimum for finfish-farming projects. Finfish farming does not seem to be as profitable as shrimp-farming.

Environmental Issues and Management

Issues related to exploitation

In India, marine ornamental fishes are known to be abundant in coral reef areas in shallow waters in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, around the Andaman Islands and the lagoons and the reef flats of the Lakshadweep Islands. Among these areas, the Lakshadweep region is the most important in regard to the abundance of ornamental fishes and in the diversity of species. This region is very shallow and is vulnerable to environmental degradation by human activities. Hence, commercial exploitation is likely to result not only in quick overexploitation but also in the destruction of the coral reef environment. Any project for the exploitation and export of marine ornamental fishes should consider the following issues (Murty, 1996):

· Destruction of environment - The clownfish (Amphiprion spp.) are known to be symbiotic with sea anemones while other fishes are closely associated with coral colonies. Some of the gears used to exploit these tend to destroy the corals. Thus, proper measures should be in place to monitor exploitation and protection of the environment. The conservation measures should be implemented from the very beginning to contain or stop the adverse affects.

· Over-exploitation - Only non-destructive methods of exploitation, like the traps, should be permitted. As some fishes do not enter traps, net enclosures could be permitted. Though the marine ornamental fishes are more abundant in the island ecosystems, their exploitation and export on a small-scale may have to be initiated in the mainland coast particularly the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay and extended to the islands later.

· Monitoring the exploitation and export - In view of the lucrative market for marine ornamental fishes, several firms are likely to enter the trade and export through many centres to different destinations. For the purpose of monitoring the exploitation and export, a single agency may be created to monitor and oversee the trade of ornamental fishes. Transportation, both domestic and abroad may be channelled through this agency. Data on the location of fishing, species, number, and size of fish may be recorded. The allowable catch may be fixed for each location and ecosystem so as to keep the exploitation under control.

· Breeding and culture - As the demand for ornamental fishes is increasing rapidly, the wild stocks may suffer overexploitation. Therefore the technology of breeding, seed production, and culture should be developed and hatcheries and grow-outs established at Vizhinjam, Tuticorin, and Mandapam in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay coasts.

· Sanctuaries - One or two lagoons of the Lakshadweep islands, particularly the Bangaram which is open for tourists, may be identified as sanctuaries for coral reef fishes. The marine park in the Gulf of Mannar and the Wandoor National Park in the Andaman Islands should receive consistent support to help conserve their biodiversity.

Information on impact of wild seed collection

The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute has organised a programme in the 1980's to assess the seed resources of commercially important marine finfishes all along the Indian coast. In this programme, the occurrence and abundance of wild seed in relation to the environmental factors were studied. Milkfish has two peak seasons during April-June and September-October. Among the coral reef fishes, groupers are abundant during September-December in the coastal Gulf of Mannar.

Aquaculture and environmental management

Aquaculture vis-à-vis Coastal Regulations Zone rules and regulations - The aquaculture policy recently declared by the Government of India ensures protection of the coastal environment. The policy gives extensive guidelines on how the coastal environment should be protected from possible pollution or other damages consequent to the setting up of aquaculture farms. Under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), any type of construction within the 500 m landward from the High Tide Line (HTL) is prohibited. The aquaculture policy demands the protection of the integrity of the shore as a condition in constructing a farm. Hatcheries are also permitted in the CRZ possibly with inferred provision for pollution control measures. The relevant extracts from the concerned Acts, Rules, and Notifications are stated below:

· Environment (Protection) Act 1986, under Section 3(1) and 3(2)(v) and Rule 5(3)d of Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 – The Notification on 19 February 1991 declares the coastal stretches as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) and regulates activities in the CRZ. The 1986 rules apply to the coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters that are influenced by tidal action up to 500 metres from the HTL landward. The 1991 Notification imposes restrictions on industries, operations and processes in the CRZ.

· 2(iii) of the 1991 Notification - Setting up and expansion of fish processing units including warehouse are prohibited. This restriction seems too harsh and unreasonable. However, hatcheries, that require inevitably a waterfront, are permissible.

· Para. 3(1) of Notification - Clearance for certain activities within the Coastal Regulation Zone Clearance shall be given for any activity only if it requires waterfront and foreshore activities. This implies that if the clearance is obtained from the Ministry of Environment, aquaculture/hatcheries can be set up. However, there is no mention of aquaculture in the list of allowable activities, such as agriculture, horticulture, and salt manufacture, within category III (200 to 300 m) of the CRZ. Construction of hotels/beach resorts are allowed with prior approval.

Thus, the essence of the Notification is that the coastal ecosystem should not be damaged. This is echoed in the Aquaculture (Regulation) Act 1995 of the State of Tamil Nadu that permits aquaculture activity within the 500 m CRZ, albeit with some environmental safeguards.

Marketing and economic aspects

The economic aspects of marine finfish farming need to be standardised on the basis of farming practices for different zones. The fry and fingerlings of some species of groupers occur in large quantities close to estuaries, offering good scope to promote live export. The southeast coast of India has been identified as a potential ground for the collection of a variety of groupers, snappers, and pigface breams and the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Andamans for ornamental fishes. The standardisation of farming practices will improve production and increase the export of live groupers and ornamental fishes at premium prices to many countries.

Constraints to grouper and other coral reef fish aquaculture

The main constraint in the aquaculture of groupers and other coral reef fishes is technical in nature. The technology of breeding and hatchery production is yet to be developed and standardised. Grow-out techniques need to be developed and perfected although a beginning has been made. Technology transfer and extension methods need to be strengthened.

Recommendations

To develop marine fin-fish culture technologies, there is need for:

· training scientists in breeding and hatchery development and management;

· carrying out research in physiology, biochemistry, and biotechnology pertaining to reproduction and hatchery development; and

· developing policy on land and water use for coastal mariculture.

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[1] Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin, India

[2] Polythene-lined ponds

[3] NA – not available

[4] Editor’s note: All scientific names were checked against FishBase 1998. Valid names were used to replace old synonyms. Scientific names with (?) beside them indicate that there was no match in the database.