Grouper Aquaculture in Australia
M. Rimmer,[1] M. O’Sullivan,[2] J.
Gillespie,[3] C. Young,[4] A. Hinton,[5] J.
Rhodes[6]
Abstract
Australia has an established wild capture fishery for grouper species in
northern Australia. The major fishery is in Queensland, where the reef line
fishery targets coral trout (Plectropomus spp.). The current commercial catch is estimated at
about 1,200 tonnes per annum with an additional 1,100 tonnes caught by the
recreational sector. In 1994, about 43
tonnes of the commercial catch was exported as live product, most of that was
airfreighted to Hong Kong. Higher
valued species, barramundi cod (Cromileptes altivelis) and maori wrasse
(Cheilinus undulatus), are uncommon.
Grouper aquaculture has only recently commenced in Australia, with 2
commercial hatcheries and 1 government hatchery commencing research on estuary
cod (Epinephelus coioides) and barramundi cod. To date, no significant commercial production has been
achieved. Because of the developing
market for high value live reef fish in Southeast Asia, there is increasing
interest in aquaculture of reef fish species, particularly groupers. A feasibility study was carried out by the
Queensland Department of Primary Industries (DPI) during 1995-96 to assess the
potential to develop a reef fish aquaculture industry in Queensland to supply
the high priced live fish markets in Hong Kong and China. Results of these
studies are summarised in this paper. Because of the high cost of the proposed
research, DPI is now assessing possible development of a joint
government/private industry research project, as well as participation in
collaborative research within the region. The Queensland Government has
recently provided core funding to begin research into grouper aquaculture.
Introduction
Finfish aquaculture in tropical northern Australia is
currently based almost entirely on production of barramundi (Lates
calcarifer). Production of farmed barramundi has increased steadily since
the late 1980’s and 1995-96 production was about 460 tonnes, valued at AU$4.9
million. Based on this success, the Australian tropical finfish aquaculture
industry is keen to diversify by producing other finfish species, including
snappers (Family Lutjanidae) and groupers (Family Serranidae).
Grouper aquaculture is currently only in the
experimental stage in Australia. There are currently two commercial hatcheries
that are undertaking research on the development of aquaculture techniques for
estuary cod (Epinephelus coioides), one in Queensland and one in Western
Australia. Commercial production of
this species has not yet been achieved. Both these hatcheries are working in
conjunction with Queensland Department of Primary Industries (DPI) aquaculture
researchers. DPI researchers at Northern Fisheries Centre (NFC), Cairns, have
previously undertaken research on common coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus)
with reference to the development of aquaculture techniques for this species
(Rimmer et al. 1994). More
recently, we have commenced research on the development of aquaculture
techniques for estuary cod and barramundi cod (Cromileptes altivelis) at
NFC.
Queensland has recently seen the development of a
fishery based on the capture and live export of reef fish species, principally
the coral trout species (Plectropomus spp.). Because of the high wholesale prices paid for live reef fish in
Hong Kong (see below), and concerns regarding the long term sustainability of
the capture fishery for live reef fish, there is substantial interest in the
development of an aquaculture industry for high value reef fish destined for
the live markets in Hong Kong and southern China.
In response to this interest, DPI undertook a
feasibility study into the possible development of a reef fish aquaculture
industry in Queensland. The overall objectives
of the study were to determine what level of research and development (R&D)
was likely to be required to develop a reef fish aquaculture industry, and
whether the resulting industry was likely to be profitable enough to justify
the costs of R&D to Queensland.
Further details of this study are reported in the following section of
this paper.
Reef Fish Aquaculture
Feasibility Study
The Reef Fish Aquaculture Feasibility Study[7] comprised
seven individual studies, which were undertaken by DPI staff, or by consultants
in close collaboration with DPI staff.
The overall study attempted to look at all aspects of R&D,
production and marketing of high value reef fish species specifically produced
for sale in live markets in Hong Kong and southern China. The overall
feasibility study plan is shown in Figure 1.
A series of seven studies was carried out:
1.
Present and future
markets for selected live reef fish in Hong Kong and China.
2.
Queensland’s current
reef line fishery and its potential to supply live fish, particularly for coral
trout.
3.
Case studies of similar
projects world wide including time taken, development costs and difficulties.
4.
Infrastructure required
to service a live fish export industry.
5.
Identification of sites
suitable for land and sea cage farming operations on the east coast of
Queensland.
6.
Detailed analysis of
R&D requirements, and costing for a research programme to develop
aquaculture techniques for high value reef fish species.
7.
Benefit/cost analysis of
the R&D and subsequent commercial industry; and a financial evaluation to
indicate the likely profitability of commercial farms that would commercialise
the R&D output through live fish production and export sales
Figure 1. Network outline for studies carried out for the “Reef Fish Aquaculture Feasibility Study”
Market Analysis
A
market analysis was carried out by Hong Kong based consultants, concentrating
on the Hong Kong/southern China live marine finfish market. The total seafood market in Hong Kong is
over 220,000 tonnes per annum and the current market for high quality live reef
fish is estimated to be 1,600-1,700 tonnes per annum. Assuming that the Hong Kong and Chinese economies continue to
expand at the current rate, both demand and price will expand in the immediate
future. Compound growth rates in excess of 12% are forecast, indicating that
the market is expected to double every 6 years.
The
demand for the highest price species, i.e. coral trout, barramundi cod,
and maori wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) is currently only about 814
tonnes. The average wholesale price (i.e. the price received by
wholesalers from the restaurant trade) in 1995 for coral trout was AUD$46/kg
and for barramundi cod and maori wrasse was AUD$87/kg. Prices are forecast to
be 60-100% higher by the year 2003. The estimated wholesale market value for
the top three species is projected to be AUD$198 million in the year 2000,
growing to AUD$398 million by 2003. In
addition to the market for live reef fish, there are substantial markets for
whole fresh chilled product, although the extent of these markets was not
investigated in this study.
Existing supply sources are expected to be
insufficient to satisfy projected demand.
Wild stocks of finfish targeted for Asian live fish markets are reported
to be severely depleted from over-fishing and unsustainable fishing practices,
such as the use of cyanide (Johannes and Riepen 1994).
Domestic Reef Fishing Industry
Assessment
A desk top study was undertaken to examine the
capacity of the Queensland fishing industry for live reef fish to satisfy
projected market requirements. This study used commercial catch records since
1989 and available research/management reports for the commercial sector of the
reef line fishery to assess the capacity of this fishery sector to meet current
and future market requirements.
The Queensland Reef Line Fishery is defined as all
fishing that takes reef fish by handline, rod and line, or troll line within
the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park which extends between the latitudes of 10° 41’ S and 24° S on the continental shelf of north-eastern
Australia. The fishery is divided into two main sectors: commercial and
recreational. Fishing charter boat operations are included in the recreational
sector.
The combined annual commercial and recreational reef
fish catch in this area is in the region of 8,000 tonnes, of which coral trout
and red throat emperor (Lethrinus miniatus) probably comprise as much as
2,300 and 1,000 tonnes respectively (Brown et al. 1994). In the future,
an increasing resource allocation problem is expected, due to the combined
pressure of both recreational and commercial fishers, particularly near
population centres.
The commercial sector of the reef line fishery is
spread along the entire length of the reef system with a concentration of
catches and effort along the southern section of the reef, between Cardwell and
Shoalwater Bay. Since it commenced in the 1930’s there has been little change
in the fishing methods used in this fishery. It is a hook and line fishery with
both recreational and commercial demersal reef fishers using very similar
techniques and equipment. The fishery has a high level of latent effort.
Although there are over 1,900 line endorsed vessels, in 1994 fifty percent of
the commercial coral trout catch was landed by only 30 commercial line fishing
vessels.
The demersal reef fish of commercial fishing vessels
is about 1,600 to 2,400 tonnes per annum (Table 1). The value of this catch is
estimated to be AUD$6-10 million. Since 1989 commercial coral trout catches
have varied between roughly 900 and 1,500 tonnes per annum. In 1994 1,100
tonnes of coral trout was landed by commercial operators and an estimated 43
tonnes of this catch was exported as live fish. There is significant spatial
variation in coral trout catches, with the bulk of commercial catches of coral
trout coming from the reefs south of Cardwell to Shoalwater Bay (latitudes 18o-22oS).
Catches, effort and catch rates increase from a low in January of each year to
a high between September and November, which is the spawning period for coral
trout. There have been industry suggestions that a fishery closure during the
spawning season will assist in conserving coral trout stocks.
Table 1. Commercial catches
(tonnes) of, coral trout, red throat emperor, other demersal fish species, and
total catch for the Queensland reef line fishery from 1989 to 1994
|
Year |
Coral trout |
Red throat emperor |
Other |
Total catch |
|
1989 |
930 |
419 |
298 |
1,646 |
|
1990 |
1,254 |
479 |
381 |
2,113 |
|
1991 |
1,427 |
516 |
387 |
2,329 |
|
1992 |
1,467 |
548 |
318 |
2,332 |
|
1993 |
1,260 |
538 |
240 |
2,038 |
|
1994 |
1,100 |
514 |
235 |
1,850 |
Although in the past virtually all captured coral
trout were utilised in the domestic retail and restaurant markets, export of
live reef fish is a rapidly growing component of the Queensland reef line
fishery. According to Australian Quarantine Inspection Service records 42.5
tonnes of live fish was exported from north Queensland in 1994 and the
Queensland Fisheries Management Authority reports that 47 tonnes was exported in
the first six months of 1995. Approximately 90% of the fish exported is coral
trout, 4% is barramundi cod and a mixture of other reef species make up the
remainder. Retaining live fish for export has been estimated to provide fishers
with an increase in profit of around 30%.
The stocks of coral trout on the Queensland east coast appear to be fully exploited due to the combined pressure of both recreational and commercial fishing. If the whole commercial reef line fishery converted from fillet product to live fish operations, they could potentially supply up 700 tonnes of coral trout annually, which is a significant increase from the present 50-100 tonnes. However, due to size and colour preferences, not all of this catch is suitable for the Hong Kong market.
There is considerable opposition to live reef fish
exports from the recreational and fishing charter sectors of the community.
This opposition is based on the perceptions that the live fish export industry
is causing overfishing, is targeting small fish, and is limiting supplies of
reef fish that should be freely available for other fishers to catch and
consume. Aquaculture of reef fish species could offer solutions to these
problems by providing an adequate supply of suitable fish without impacting on
the reef fish wildstocks. This would help to protect the reef fish stocks from
overfishing while allowing expansion of the live export industry.
Research and Development Case
Studies
The costs of R&D for established aquaculture
industries were investigated for 6 different finfish species: Atlantic salmon,
channel catfish, barramundi, European sea bass, and European sea bream. The halibut industry was also included in
the report as an example of an industry that has recently commenced commercial
production following an extensive period of R&D, but which still has
relatively low production. Costs were
estimated for the ‘set up’ phase of each industry, i.e. the time from
commencement of research to the establish of a viable commercial industry.
Various experts from research and development institutions associated with each
industry provided information on establishment costs and time for each industry
investigated.
Costs of initial R&D for the establishment of
commercially viable aquaculture industries were generally in the range AUD$90
million - 70 million, in cases where there was no or little existing technology
base for these industries. In cases
where there was an existing technology base, initial R&D costs were substantially
less, generally in the range AUD$2.5 million - 26.5 million (Table 2).
Table 2 R&D costs for finfish aquaculture industries, with
duration of start-up R&D phase in brackets; and 1993/94 production quantity
and industry value. N/A: denotes no information available and ‘-’ not yet
producing
|
Industry |
Country |
R&D (AUD$) |
1993-94 Industry |
|
|
|
/Region |
|
Production (t) |
Value (AUD$) |
|
Atlantic
Salmon |
Norway |
$90 million
(8 yrs) |
207,000 |
$900 million |
|
|
Scotland |
$26.5
million (18 yrs) |
65,000 |
$520 million |
|
|
Canada |
$6.5 million
(3 yrs) |
13,500 |
$132 million |
|
|
Australia |
$3.7 million
(6yrs) |
4,000 |
$48 million |
|
Channel
Catfish |
USA |
$70.2
million (15 yrs) |
132,000 |
$441 million |
|
Barramundi |
Australia |
$2.5 million
(5 yrs) |
350 |
$4 million |
|
European
Seabass |
Mediterranean |
N/A |
14,000 |
$152.2
million |
|
European Sea Bream |
Mediterranean |
N/A |
14,000 |
$139.6
million |
|
Halibut |
Norway |
$67.5
million (20yrs) |
100 |
$1.6 million |
|
|
UK |
$3-5
million (15 yrs) |
- |
- |
Other factors
that this study identified as being of importance in the development of viable
aquaculture industries are:
·
R&D funding is
generally provided by government bodies, and by industry-based organisations.
Initial funding is primarily provided by government, with industry picking up
R&D costs as production commences and the industry becomes profitable.
·
A wide range of R&D
areas (e.g. water quality, production technology, fish health, engineering,
environmental issues, breeding, and larviculture) need to be incorporated in
the R&D studies.
Infrastructure Requirements
A study was undertaken to assess the requirements for
infrastructure to support export of live reef fish produced by aquaculture. The
study found that the infrastructure to handle holding, packaging and export of
live fish is in place to support the existing export of wild caught fish. Although airfreight may be limited during
some periods of the year, overall the availability of airfreight space is not
expected to be a limiting factor in the development of a reef fish aquaculture
industry. Recently, the banning of live
seafood containers using oxygen into Hong Kong has decreased the profitability
of live fish export operations, and has led to renewed interest in alternative
packaging technology. It was suggested
that fast sea freight will provide a more cost-effective method of transport of
live fish to Asian markets.
Reef
Fish Grow-out Site Identification and Evaluation
A constraint on the development of a reef fish
aquaculture industry in Queensland is the availability of suitable sites, and
the impact that aquaculture would have on the natural environment. Most areas
suitable for grow-out of reef fish would be in, or would potentially impact on,
the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. This is a World Heritage listed area that
is internationally renowned for its relatively undeveloped coral reef
environment.
A desk based study was undertaken by consultants to
identify potentially suitable sites for grow-out of reef fish species on the
eastern coast of Queensland. Areas zoned as high conservation value were
excluded from consideration.
The study identified areas suitable for cage culture
and additional sites potentially suitable for land based culture. Because of
the limited nature of the study, it is likely that there are additional sites
that are suitable for reef fish aquaculture that were not identified in the
present study. This is particularly the case for land-based sites. Additional
land based sites may be utilised if recirculating production systems are used
to grow out reef fish species.
R&D Requirements and
Costing
A major constraint to the development of a reef fish
aquaculture industry in Queensland is the technical difficulty in rearing large
numbers of reef fish fingerlings for grow-out. Currently, survival of reef fish
larvae to fingerling stage is low (generally <5%, and often <1%). A review of the scientific literature was
undertaken to identify the main technical constraints in reef fish aquaculture.
Although a range of reef fish species are cultured in
other parts of the world, in general the success of these operations is low and
many culture operations rely on the capture of juvenile fish from the wild for
grow-out operations. Such operations are not regarded as ecologically
sustainable developments, and are discouraged in Australia for this reason.
In Australia today, a viable aquaculture industry must
be able to produce marketable product cost effectively, by rearing animals
through to harvest size from captive broodstock; and must do so while
maintaining minimal or negligible environmental impacts.
The following discussion of research and development
(R&D) requirements for a reef fish aquaculture industry is based on these
two important factors.
Queensland has a useful model for the development of a
finfish aquaculture industry in the barramundi industry. The development of
this industry has been supported by research carried out by the DPI. The
progress of barramundi aquaculture in Queensland has shown that the development
of a viable, relatively large-scale industry is dependent on:
·
a reliable supply
of high quality larvae from captive
broodstock;
·
cost-effective larval
rearing techniques;
·
nursery and grow-out
techniques that maximise survival and minimise production costs; and
·
existing markets for
aquaculture product, and a marketing strategy for increasing production.
DPI’s extensive experience in developing techniques
that are now in use by the barramundi aquaculture industry has been used in
determining the R&D needs for the development of a reef fish aquaculture
industry.
Species selection
The discussion of R&D requirements focuses on
coral trout and barramundi cod as the species of principal interest for reef
fish aquaculture. However, a wider scan of species suitable for reef fish
aquaculture was undertaken in order to avoid limiting species consideration at
this early stage. Several Epinephelus species were considered because
there is an abundant literature on this genus, and because much of the
information regarding Epinephelus culture is directly relevant to the
closely related coral trout and barramundi cod. In addition, there is a significant body of opinion that Epinephelus
species could support an aquaculture industry component in their own right.
Assuming technological advances allow routine and inexpensive larviculture the
farm gate production costs could be similar to those currently achieved on
Australian barramundi farms.
Species considered in this study were:
Coral trout
Plectropomus
leopardus (common coral
trout)
Plectropomus
laevis (blue-spot trout)
Plectropomus
maculatus (barred-cheek coral
trout)
Plectropomus
areolatus (passionfruit
coral trout)
Cod
Epinephelus
coioides (estuary cod)
Epinephelus
tauvina (gold-spot cod)
Epinephelus
malabaricus (black-spot cod)
Epinephelus
fuscoguttatus (flowery cod)
Barramundi cod
Cromileptes
altivelis
Wrasse
Cheilinus
undulatus (humphead Maori Wrasse)
Research and Development
Critical aspects of R&D, identified by this study,
were:
·
maintenance of captive
broodstock and development of captive breeding procedures;
·
identification of live
prey organisms suitable for use in larval rearing;
·
development of culture
techniques for selected live prey organisms;
·
development of larval
rearing techniques; and
·
development of culture
systems that provide for minimal environmental impact in the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park and adjacent waters.
Central to the R&D requirements for reef fish
aquaculture is the provision of high quality reef water. A number of possible
sites for the R&D programme are briefly discussed in the report, based on
their access to water of suitable quality and their proximity to existing
research facilities.
The R&D programme has been planned for
a period of 10 years, split into 3 phases of 4, 3, and 3-year duration,
respectively (Table 3). Continued
funding of the later phases of the project would be contingent on achieving the
milestones established for the previous phase. The indicative funding for the
proposal totals around AUD$14 million (Table
4).
Table 3 Proposed
R&D programme for the development of reef fish aquaculture in Queensland
|
|
Duration |
Main Aims |
|
Phase 1 |
4 years |
Establish captive broodstock of at least 3
species. Develop spawning techniques
for these 3 species. Undertake
initial feeding and larval rearing trials.
Develop culture techniques for copepods and other zooplankton prey. |
|
Phase 2 |
3 years |
Develop ‘on demand’ spawning techniques for the 3
fish species used in Phase 1.
Commence development of spawning techniques for at least 1 additional
species. Refine zooplankton
production techniques. Develop
reliable larval rearing techniques for the 3 species chosen. |
|
Phase 3 |
3 years |
Refine spawning and larval rearing techniques. If possible, expand to other species. Undertake grow-out trials in conjunction
with industry. |
Table 4 Summary of indicative
funding for an R&D programme to develop reef fish aquaculture in Queensland
(costs in AUD$)
|
|
Phase
1 |
Phase
2 |
Phase
3 |
|
Component |
Years
1-4 |
Years
5-7 |
Years
8-10 |
|
Broodstock |
$965,000 |
$642,000 |
$497,000 |
|
Larviculture |
$973,000 |
$728,000 |
$725,000 |
|
Live food |
$1,868,000 |
$1,318,000 |
$1,240,000 |
|
Grow-out |
$1,450,000 |
$921,000 |
$980,000 |
|
Administration |
$984,000 |
$421,000 |
$417,000 |
|
Total |
$6,240,000 |
$4,030,000 |
$3,859,000 |
The proposed R&D programme was designed to reduce the risk of not achieving the desired outcomes by investigating several reef fish species simultaneously, and selecting those that had the greatest potential for aquaculture.
However, it should be emphasised that even incorporating this strategy, and with the costly R&D programme outlined above, the development of reef fish aquaculture techniques should be considered a high risk project.
An alternative strategy to the full R&D proposal
estimated in the report is the establishment of a smaller research effort,
carried out in conjunction with overseas research organisations, mainly in
South-east Asia. This has the following advantages:
·
utilisation of existing
expertise from these countries;
·
lower R&D costs to
any one participating country; and
·
reduced overall risk due
to wider participation in R&D activities.
However, adoption of this option may reduce Queensland’s
competitive advantage in producing fish for live fish markets in the future.
Benefit/Cost Analysis and
Financial Evaluation
A benefit/cost analysis was performed to indicate
whether the substantial expenditure required to develop a reef fish aquaculture
industry would result in positive economic returns for Queensland. The
benefit/cost analysis model used was based on the Grains Research and
Development Corporation procedure (GRDC 1992) and required an estimate of the
success of the R&D programme for each species. Although it is difficult to
predict the eventual success of culture of reef fish species, particularly in
view of the paucity of biological information on most species and the high
variability of survival experienced by other aquaculture researchers, the
following probabilities were used for the benefit/cost analysis:
·
coral trout: 20%
·
maori wrasse: 7.5%
·
barramundi cod: 15%
It is considered that these figures are conservative, and that more accurate estimates of the probability of success can only be achieved following further research into aquaculture techniques for these species.
Other assumptions used in these models were:
·
the R&D programme
outlined above is successful, particularly with the extremely high valued
species such as barramundi cod;
·
high market prices are
maintained, as indicated in the marketing study, although prices were assumed
not to increase past year 2000 forecasts because of increased supply from
aquaculture;
·
market demand continues
to grow due to population increase and increasing affluence in China and Hong
Kong;
·
industry adoption
commences in the tenth year of research and builds up to an industry with a
production level of 2,500 tonnes after 10 years and 7,000 tonnes after 20
years; and
·
fish reach a preferred
market weight of 1 kg after a grow-out period of 24 months;
Epinephelus
species were not considered in the benefit/cost study or the financial
evaluation. The relatively low value of
these species (compared with coral trout, maori wrasse, and barramundi cod)
does not justify the high level of research expenditure indicated by the
‘R&D Requirements and Costing’ study.
The benefit/cost model showed that a reef fish
aquaculture industry in Queensland has the potential to be highly profitable,
generating revenue in excess of AUD$1 billion within 30 years under favourable
conditions. Using an 8% discount rate over 40 years, the net present value of
the research project could be of the order of AUD$170 million, with a
benefit:cost ratio of 16.6:1.
The financial evaluation (based on the economics of
100 tonnes per annum production units, both land based and offshore cages)
indicated that farming reef fish species is potentially highly profitable.
Internal rates of return in excess of 100% were indicated for aquaculture of barramundi
cod and maori wrasse, and 50% for coral trout. Labour, feed and fingerling
costs constitute the critical production costs. Harvesting, marketing and
transport account for approximately 50% of the overall costs, but might be
reduced through changes in transport technology and increased economies of
scale for larger production units.
Conclusion
With an increasing population base and growing
affluence in Hong Kong and southern China, the market for live seafood,
including live reef fish, seems set to increase for the foreseeable future.
Prices are forecast to increase steadily for at least the next 6 years. It
appears unlikely that this demand can be fully met by capture fisheries,
particularly in view of the widespread environmental damage caused by unsustainable
fishing techniques such as the use of cyanide and dynamite in many fisheries
(Johannes and Riepen 1995). Even where such practices are not used (e.g.
the Queensland reef line fishery), there is relatively little potential for
expansion of the capture industry. Increasing demand for live reef fish will
have to be met by aquaculture product.
Our studies have shown that R&D costs for the
development of a reef fish aquaculture industry are high, although comparable
with the R&D costs for establishment of other finfish aquaculture
industries. However, returns are also likely to be high, and the established
industry should be highly profitable. The main constraint to the development of
a viable reef fish aquaculture industry is the technical difficulty associated
with producing large numbers of fingerlings for grow-out. Although this aspect
is specifically targeted in the proposed R&D programme, it is generally
recognised that investment in R&D for reef fish aquaculture is high risk,
albeit with potentially high rewards.
The Queensland Government has recently encouraged the
development of a reef fish aquaculture industry by supporting core research
into the development of aquaculture techniques for high value reef fish species
at NFC. However, the level of funding supplied is well below that estimated in
the Reef Fish Aquaculture Feasibility Study as being required to develop a
viable industry within 10 years. Consequently, additional funding will be
required to facilitate industry development. While private investment funding
is still being sought to facilitate commencement of the full R&D programme
outlined above, there is also strong support for a co-ordinated regional
approach to R&D for reef fish aquaculture.
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